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Beckel, Deborah. "Roots of
Reform: The Origins of Populism and Progressivism as Manifest in
Relationships Among Reformers in Raleigh, North Carolina, 1850-1905."
Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University, 1998.
DAI, 59, no. 08A, (1998): 3166.
Recounts the lives of John Nichols (1834-1917), James Henry Harris
(1832-1891), Leonidas LaFayette Polk (1837-1892), and Fannie Exile Scudder
Heck (1862-1915). Polk was
president of the Southern Farmers Alliance.
Their reform efforts were rooted in the past, cross-class, and
long-lived. Each suffered from powerful retaliation by North Carolina's
conservative white male elite. This,
plus differences between reformers, prevented their building the strong
coalitions necessary for lasting reform.
Beeby, James M. "Populism in
North Carolina: A Response to the Socio-Political Hegemony of the Bourbon
Democratic Elites." Master's thesis, Bowling Green State University,
1995.
Beeby, James Matthew.
"Revolt of the Tar Heelers: A socio-political history of the North
Carolina Populist Party, 1892-1901." Ph.D. dissertation, Bowling
Green State University, 1999. DAI,
60, no. 11A (1999): 4147. Populists
fused with Republicans and defeated the
Democrats in 1894. They
subsequently passed a series of reforms that changed the North Carolina
politics and political culture. Democrats
responded with a white supremacy campaign in 1898 using the interlocking
themes of increased black power and the threat to white womanhood.
Once back in office, Democrats repealed the reforms and
disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites.
Billings, Dwight B., Jr. Planters
and the Making of a 'New South': Class, Politics, and Development in North
Carolina, 1865-1900. 284 p. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1979.
Bode, Frederick A. Protestantism
and the New South: North Carolina Baptists and Methodists in Political
Crisis, 1894-1903. Charlottesville: U of Virginia P, 1975.
_____. "Religion and Class
Hegemony: A Populist Critique in North Carolina." Journal of
Southern History. 37(3):417‑38. August 1971.
Populists' battles with traditional southern Protestant religion
and its role as defender of the status quo.
Bromberg, Alan B. "The Worst
Muddle Ever Seen in N. C. Politics: The Farmers' Alliance, the Subtreasury,
and Zeb Vance." North Carolina Historical Review. 56(1):19-40.
1979.
Carlson, Andrew James.
"White Man's Revolution: North Carolina and the American Way of Race
Politics, 1896-1901." Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, 1993.
DAI, 54, no. 10A, (1993): 3854.
In 1896 North Carolina fulfilled many of the best possibilities of
Gilded Age politics. Governed
by the most liberal election laws in the South, a Fusion coalition of
Republicans and Populists elected 8 of 9 United States Representatives to
the Congress, the nation's only African-American congressman, and the
state's first Republican Governor since 1877.
In 1897 and 1898 Democrats used their domination of the daily
newspapers to make the case that the Fusionists had brought an "Era
of Scandal" and "Negro domination" on the state.
The Spanish-American War became the background for a violent white
supremacy campaign and a massacre of innocent African-Americans. Crow, Jeffrey J. "'Fusion, Confusion, and Negroism': Schisms Among Negro Republicans in the North Carolina Election of 1896." North Carolina Historical Review 1976 53(4): 364-384. Black Republicans were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of Daniel L. Russell in 1896. Conservatives opposed Russell feared loss of status within the Republican Party and disliked his public racial insults. Fusionists favored Russell as a means of defeating the Democrats. Democratic racism and good Republican organization caused a majority of blacks to vote for Russell on election day. America: History and Life, 15A:2428 _____. "'Populism to Progressivism' in North Carolina: Governor Daniel Russell and His War on the Southern Railway Company." Historian 1975 37(4): 649-667. Unlike Alabama Populists, North Carolina's Populists were reformers. Although progressive Democrats failed to support Governor Russell on railroad regulation in the 1890s, they supported the issue after the turn of the century. America: History and Life, 14A:8408
_____. and Robert F. Durden. Maverick
Republican in the Old North State: A Political Biography of Daniel L.
Russell. 202 p. Southern Biography Series. Baton Rouge: LSU Press,
1977.
Delap, Simeon Alexander.
"The Populist Party in North Carolina." Trinity College
Historical Society, Durham N.C. Historical Papers. 14:40-74. 1922.
Durden, Robert F. "The Battle of the Standards in 1896 and North Carolina's Place in the Mainstream." South Atlantic Quarterly 1964 63(3): 336-350. Emphasizes fusion. America: History and Life, 1:2510 Faulkner, Ronnie W. "North Carolina Democrats and Silver Fusion Politics, 1892-1896." North Carolina Historical Review 1982 59(3): 230-251. North Carolina Democrats opposed Grover Cleveland's nomination for president in 1892 because he supported the gold standard. With the Panic of 1893 and Populist-Republican fusion of 1894, Democrats went into decline. Both Democrats and Populists supported William Jennings Bryan's bid for president in 1896, but ran separate gubernatorial candidates, giving the Republicans a victory. Afterward, Populists abandoned fusion with Republicans in favor of reform from within the Democratic Party. America: History and Life, 20A:5464
Ferguson, James S. "An Era
of Educational Change." North Carolina Historical Review.
46(2):130‑141. Spring 1969. Farmers'
Alliance and education to 1900.
Gilmore, Glenda G. "Agrarian
Unrest and Urban Remedies: The Progressive Solution in North
Carolina." Master's thesis, University of North Carolina at
Charlotte, 1985. 106 pp.
Hicks, John D. "The Farmers'
Alliance in North Carolina." in American Historical Association
Annual Report for the Year 1922. p. 331-32. Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1926. Farmers' Alliance
dominates Democratic Party until Alliances fuses with Populists.
_____. "The Farmers'
Alliance in North Carolina." North Carolina Historical Review.
2:162-187. 1925. Hunt, James L. "The Making of a Populist: Marion Butler, 1863-1895." North Carolina Historical Review 1985 62(1): 53-77. In Sampson County, Butler's early life was comfortable and religious as he worked on the family farm. He presented orations at the University of North Carolina (1881-85) on racist and Southern themes. After graduation, Butler taught school, purchased a local newspaper, The Caucasian, and soon became a leader in the newly formed Southern Alliance. America: History and Life, 23A:6796
_____.
Marion Butler and American Populism. Chapel Hill and London:
University of North Carolina Press, 2003. A revision of
"Marion
Butler and the Populist Ideal, 1863-1938." Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1990.
DAI, 51, no. 04A, (1990). A
detailed factual account of Butler's life.
Butler served as national chairman of the Populist Party
(1896-1904). Membership in the Farmers Alliance caused Butler to develop a
comprehensive reform ideology, which included a demand for government
control of natural monopolies. Butler
directed the 1894 Populist victory in North Carolina.
After Populism, Butler became a Roosevelt Republican.
Hunt contradicts Lawrence Goodwyn and C. Vann Woodward, contending
Butler understood and supported the Omaha platform.
He advocated coalition politics for practical purposes. Ingle, H. Larry. "A Southern Democrat at Large: William Hodge Kitchin and the Populist Party." North Carolina Historical Review 1968 45(2): 178-194. Ex-Confederate William Hodge Kitchin attacked the established white ruling class in North Carolina, using the rhetoric of democracy in the service of white supremacy. But, as a Populist, he attempted to preserve conservative principles. He was on the right wing of the party. America: History and Life, 6:2651
Kimmel, Bruce Ira. "The
Political Sociology of Third Parties in the United States: A Comparative
Study of the People's Party in North Carolina, Georgia and
Minnesota." Ph.D. Dissertation (Sociology), Columbia University,
1981. Focuses on the reactions of major parties to the instability
created by a third party. In
the 1890's, North Carolina and Minnesota had relatively stable two-party
systems. A single party dominated in Georgia. North Carolina and Georgia
politics in this period were undemocratic, while Minnesota politics were
as democratic as any in the nation. The
instability is attributed to the social strains generated by rapid
industrialization. Kirshenbaum, Andrea Meryl. "'The Vampire That Hovers Over North Carolina': Gender, White Supremacy, and the Wilmington Race Riot of 1898." Southern Cultures 1998 4(3): 6-30. Democrats manipulated race and gender in order to destroy the Populist-Republican coalition in 1898. Democratic newspapers blamed "negro domination" and black males' alleged threat to white women's virtue to inflame passions against Populists and republicans. Fusionists responded in kind, but in order to maintain their coalition also defended black rights. In the wake of the 1898 Democratic victory, Wilmington whites rioted, killing many blacks and running Fusionist politicians out of town. America: History and Life, 36:10919 McMath, Robert C., Jr. "Agrarian Protest at the Forks of the Creek: Three Subordinate Farmers' Alliances in North Carolina." North Carolina Historical Review 1974 51(1): 41-63. Farmers and rural professionals were attracted by a program of economic relief, cooperative enterprise, and fraternal organization. Statewide decline of the Alliance in 1891 was associated with increased political activity. America: History and Life, 13A:6547
Muller, Philip Roy. "New
South Populism: North Carolina, 1884-1900." Ph.D. dissertation, U of
North Carolina, 1971. Dissertation Abstracts, 32:6902-A.
Noblin, Stuart. Leonidas La
Fayette Polk, Agrarian Crusader. 325 pp. Chapel Hill: U of North
Carolina P, 1949. One of the
better accounts of the Alliance in North Carolina.
_____. "Leonidas Lafayette
Polk and the North Carolina Department of Agriculture." North
Carolina Historical Review. 20:103-21. April 1942. Part Ii,
20:197‑218. July 1943.
Redding, Kent Thomas.
"Making Power: Elites in the Constitution of Disfranchisement in
North Carolina, 1880-1900." PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, 1995. Redding,
Kent Thomas. "Making Power: Elites in the Constitution of
Disfranchisement in North Carolina, 1880-1900." Ph.D. dissertation,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1995.
DAI, 56, no. 07A, (1995). The
struggle over the franchise was essentially a political struggle and
cannot be understood as a simple outcome of underlying racial and/or class
forces. Disfranchisement
resulted from the actions of movements and parties across different levels
of the polity. The Farmers'
Alliance and Populist Party used innovative tactics to challenge the
economics and politics of the "New" South and, with Republicans,
gain control of state government from 1894 to 1898.
Democrats responded with a virulent white supremacy campaign and
disfranchisement. _____. "Failed Populism: Movement-Party Disjuncture in North Carolina, 1890 to 1900." American Sociological Review June 1992 57(3): 340-352. The author used county-level data on North Carolina Farmers' Alliance membership and People's Party votes to gauge the relationship between them. He found a "striking disjuncture" between Alliance membership and People's Party support. America: History and Life, 30:13727
Ritter, Gretchen. Goldbugs and
Greenbacks: The Antimonopoly Tradition and the Politics of Finance in
America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 19977. Derived from
the author's 1992 MIT Political Science Ph.D. dissertation, "Parties
and the Politics of Money: The Antimonopoly Tradition and American
Political Development, 1865-1896."
Various movements from the National Labor Union to the Populists
were involved in the antimonopoly movement had an alternative political
economy tradition rooted in the republican persuasion of Jeffersonians and
Jacksonians. They sought to
preserve economic opportunity and political participation for all classes
in all regions of the country. Antimonopolists
were particularly concerned with reforming the monetary and banking
systems, in order to mitigate economic inequality and political
corruption. The author uses
three case studies to consider the impact of geography - North Carolina,
Illinois, and Massachusetts. Antimonopolism
was a strong, coherent tradition which offered an intellectually
reasonable alternative to corporate liberalism.
They failed because of the combined constraints of the party
system, the political culture, economic institutions, and poor strategic
choices.
Schlup, Leonard. "Adlai E.
Stevenson and the 1892 Campaign in North Carolina: A Bourbon Response to
Southern Populism." Southern Studies 1991 2(2): 131-149.
1892 Democratic vice presidential candidate Adlai E. Stevenson
stumped North Carolina in 1892 assuring listeners that Democrats would
defeat the Federal Elections Bill and continue economic benefits to the
South. Stevenson's North
Carolina family background gave him credibility.
He saved North Carolina for the Democrats.
Smith, Robert Wayne. "A
Rhetorical Analysis of the Populist Movement in North Carolina."
Ph.D. dissertation, U of Wisconsin, 1957.
Dissertation Abstracts, 17:11:2709.
Smith, Florence Emeline.
"The Populist Movement and Its Influence in North Carolina."
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1919.
ADD, S0330, (1919): 0140.
Steelman, Lala Carr, The North
Carolina Farmers' Alliance: A Political History, 1887-1893. 295 p.
East Carolina U Publications in History no. 6. Greenville, NC: East
Carolina U Publications, 1985. _____. "The Role of Elias Carr in the North Carolina Farmers' Alliance." North Carolina Historical Review 1980 57(2): 133-158. Carr was president of the North Carolina Farmers' State Association when the Southern Farmers Alliance absorbed it in 1888. Despite his upper class standing, Carr became a leader in the militant and powerful farm protest movement, as executive committee chairman (1887-89) and then as Alliance president (1889-91). he attempted to steer the Alliance away from partisan politics. America: History and Life, 19A:2637
Steelman, Joseph Flake. "The
Progressive Era in North Carolina, 1884-1917." Ph.D. dissertation, U
of North Carolina, 1955. _____. "Republican Party Strategists and the Issue of Fusion with Populists in North Carolina, 1893-1894." North Carolina Historical Review 1970 47(3): 244-269. Credits John Baxter Eaves, chairman of the Republican State Executive Committee, "with the reorganization of a rejuvenated, white Republican Party in North Carolina and Rutherford County" in 1893-1894. He opposed fusion with Populists on ideological grounds. America: History and Life, 12A:4494
Terry, Robert Lewis. "The
North Carolina Populists: A Study of Attitudes in the Light of
Historiographic Issues." M.A. thesis, history, U of Utah, 1967.
Tilley, Nannie May.
"Agitation Against the American Tobacco Company in North Carolina,
1890‑1911." North Carolina Historical Review. 24:207-23.
April 1947.
Thurtell, Craig Martin. "The
Fusion Insurgency in North Carolina: Origins to Ascendancy,
1876-1896." Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1998.
DAI, 59, no. 05A, (1998): 1741.
After 1876, Democratic Party political economy promoted the
interests of eastern North Carolina planters.
Alliance and Populist activities promoted a successful anti-planter
coalition with Republicans and Independents.
Populists were a party of small to middling farm owners who showed
little sympathy for blacks. They
shared only a desire for election reform with Republicans. In 1894, Populists combined with the pro-black wing of the
GOP. This coalition
reformed election laws, county government, stock law reversals, and
others. Democrats responded
with a violent white supremacy campaign in 1898.
Trelease, Allen W. "The Fusion Legislatures of 1895 and 1897: A Roll-Call Analysis of the North Carolina House of Representatives." North Carolina Historical Review 1980 57(3): 280-309. The Populist-Republican coalitions of 1894 and 1896 ultimately disintegrated over such large issues as business regulation, the gold standard, and race relations as well as over specific state issues, including local government, patronage, education, taxes, lynching, and railroads. Republicans supported election and government reform. Populists supported public education, business regulation, and liquor and cigarette control. America: History and Life, 19A:2639
Weaver, Philip Johnson. "The
Gubernatorial Election of 1896 in North Carolina." M.A. thesis, U of
North Carolina, 1937.
Wood, Phillip J. "The End of
Democracy: Regressive Plutocracy." Southern Exposure 1987
15(1): 38-40. An excerpt from
Southern Capitalism: The Political Economy of North Carolina, 1880-1980
(1986), describing the Populist-Republican fusion government of 1894-1898,
which enacted truly democratic laws for elections, county government,
public services, and interest rate reduction.
Business-dominated Democrats regained control in 1898, repealed the
reforms, and disfranchised blacks. |